Death Rituals

Death Rituals 

The Merina People "Turing of The Bones" & The Ifugao "Second burial"

"Rituais Fúnebres Horripilantes #1." Minilua RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

Add Add "Rituais Fúnebres Horripilantes #1." Minilua RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

The Merina People "Dancing Bones"

"MinoriTerres." Famadihana. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

Located in the central highlands of Madagascar live the Merina People. The Merina practice a unique death ritual called Famadihana. To them death is the most critical moment in life.They believed that once a body fully decays and the appropriate rituals are completed that the sprit will join the ancestors or (Razana as  they would refer to them.)  Because it is believed that the relationship with the Razana  can potentially influence their lives, it is the Merina’s responsibility to avoid taboos (fady) and grant the their wishes.  

 "Rituais Fúnebres Horripilantes #1." Minilua RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

The ritual that the Marina people must perform in order to establish a peaceful relationship is the Famadihana. Famadihana more commonly known as The Turning of the Bones,  is a death ritual in which the Merina people exhumes the remains of their ancestors, dance to funeral music with the corpse around the around the family crept, and rewrap it in new clothing before returning the it to the tomb. Although to the outsider the ritual may seem macabre it is actually not about mourning for a dead loved one. This ritual usually takes place every five to seven years and is done to maintain good ties with the Razana, to them it is perceived as away of updating the dead ancestors about the living family. It is a chance for the whole family to unit despite the distance that they might have. 

Unlike a western funeral which can be perceived as a way of saying the last goodbye to a loved one, Famadihana is a welcome back party. Anthropologist professor Maurice Bloch, who has studied the ritual, has concluded, “ it is an evocation of being together again, a transformation of sorts so that the dead can experience once more the joys of life, but most importantly it is an act of love.”  During this festival one would observe; laughter, dancing, drinking, and even people selling cigarettes or frozen yoghurt in temporary stalls set out near the tomb. 

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I will now try to describe what one would see attending a Famadihana ritual. First the ritual starts of with a huge free-for-all celebration, in fact the families that host have at times gone bankrupt due to the expense. As the day come to its climax the time to exhume the bodies approaches. Imagine, a low flat brick tomb, member’s  of the family help each other removing the stone door and one by one they walk inside. on each side of the room are stone beds, here would lie bodies of the deceased ancestors. One by one each body is introduced as they carried out of the tomb and laid upon the ground. For example, a family member would observe each body and as he remembers them he would introduce them like so “ this is uncle phil, welcome back” than the other family members would carry them outside the tomb. After they have been properly introduced family members carry them on their shoulders and dance around the tomb. Before they are placed back into their beds family members might tear off a piece of their clothing and keep it, kind of like a good luck charm that brings prosperity. Others might take use this time to take pictures with the bodies.  The corpse are placed back with fresh new clothes, called lamas, along with money, alcohol, and any other materials that their loved one might of enjoyed when they where alive. 

Unfortunately, this mind blowing ritual has been on the decline. Certain urbanized Malagasy find the ritual strange and out dated. Another factor is the countries clash with Christianity. In the beginning missionaries to the country tried to stop the practice and now increasing numbers of evangelical Christians are turning away from famadihana. 

The Ifugao "Second burial"

"Rituais Fúnebres Horripilantes #1." Minilua RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

Luzon, an island located in the Philippines, is home to the Ifugao tribe. The Ifugao have a burial ritual that takes a longer processes than probably any another imaginable. What makes their burial ritual so special is that is takes several days before the body is interment, eight days to be exact. During this time the family partakes in elaborate festivals, that honor the deceased’s spirit as well as any other spirits in the family that have already passed. interestedly enough, the ifugao indulge in a ritual called “second burial,” several years after the body has been buried it is exhumed, the bones are cleaned and stored in the family’s home.

The Ifugao center their burial rituals in a way that  appease the many different deities they believe in. Prior to the burial the family members pour rice wine onto the ground, this symbolic jester is an offering to the spirits. To protect the deceased love ones spirit against jealous spirits in the afterlife, the body is wrapped around with old and torn blankets and cloths. This gives the  appearance of tattered garments a which trick the evil spirits into not steeling form the decreased cloths. another ritual that helps ware off evil spirits is hang the skull of a sacrificed pig out side the families home.

"Rituais Fúnebres Horripilantes #1." Minilua RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

Postponing the burial allows for at least three days allows the family plenty of time to mourn and celebrate in honor of the deceased. During these days of waking, the body is seated in a chair outside the family’s house. A small group of trained women keep a vigil in front of the deceased, they constantly cry and shake the body ensuring wether if the deceased is actually dead. The Ifugao people believe that a spirit might leave the body and return in a day or two, but after three days most began to speculate that the spirit has successfully passed to the after life.

Add "Ifugao Second Burial - Google Search." Ifugao Second Burial - Google Search. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

The Ifuago call their burial festival “canao,” this festival can last several days and contains several ceremonial feasting throughout the village, foods include sacrificed pigs and chickens. The feast are followed by elaborate energetic dancing, keep in mind that all these things are happening around the corpse, which is placed in the middle of all the action. After the celebrations are concluded the corpse is finally buried.

The corpse remains buried near the family’s home for two year, which is roughly enough time for the body to decay and for the family to save up enough money for the “second burial” ceremony. The bones are clean and either kept in special mausoleum or  at home. The family will keep the remains ad periodically clean them to remove any illness or unwanted supernatural mischief.

After studying the similarities between the cultures I can conclude that both have a strong believe in spirits and in the after life. The Ifuagdo leave the corpse out side for up to eight days. why? Well its because to them death is something that you can not come back from and they need to make sure whether or not  person has passed on. Both cultures have this believe that sprits need to be remembered or else bizarre thing will occur. This believe could derive from another believe in which if you stop remembering an ancestor the existence of their spirit would vanish.

Bibliography

Ifuago "second burial"

"People & Culture." Our Africa. N.p., n.d. Web. 09 Dec. 2014. http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/articles-on-c-n-a/article.php?igm=4&i=225

"REMEMBERING THE DEAD: How Grieving Helps and Why Traditions Don't Change | The Mindful Word." The Mindful Word. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

://www.themindfulword.org/2012/remembering-the-dead-grieving-traditions/

"10 Fascinating African Tribal Traditions." AFKInsider. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.http://people.opposingviews.com/burial-rituals-beliefs-ifugao-4989.html 

Merina "turing of the bones"

"Madagascar's Dance with the Dead." BBC News. BBC, 16 Aug. 2008. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/7562898.stm

"11 Fascinating Funeral Traditions from around the Globe." TED Blog 11 Fascinating Funeral Traditions from around Theglobe Comments. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014http://blog.ted.com/2013/10/01/11-fascinating-funeral-traditions-from-around-the-globe/

"People & Culture." Our Africa. N.p., n.d. Web. 09 Dec. 2014.http://www.our-africa.org/madagascar/people-culture

 Marriage Ceremonies

Spitting on the Bride – Massai nation, Kenya

"Bellosblog." : PSI-PSI UA MAS KANOYNE ....ΜΑΣΑΪ!!!!! N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

Located in southern Kenya and in northern Tanzania live the Maasai people. They are among the most distinctive population of the region, this is due to their residence near the many game parks of the African Great Lakes, and their distinctive custom and dress. The Maasai tribe participate in a very peculiar Marriage ritual. During the marriage ceremony the father of the bride gives his daughter a final blessing by spitting on her head and breast. 

"Picx Masai Mara Tribe Women 2 Photos on Pinterest RSS." Picx Masai Mara Tribe Women 2 Photos on Pinterest. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

Roughly around the ages of thirteen through sixteen the young Maasai girls get married. The girl are usually married to a much older man, and in most cases neither the bride nor bridegroom have ever met before. The marriages are all matched by the families of the spouses. The bridegrooms family meets with the bride’s family and depending on the situation decide on how much the bridegroom’s family will pay in exchange for the brides hand in marriage. The two families usually agree on livestock for payment, if the arrangement is between friends the payment ranges between four to five cows, but if it is between strangers it can range up to fifteen cows. 

A few days before the wedding the bridegroom and his best man begin the trip to the brides village, bringing with them the dowry. This livestock is a symbolic remembrance for the bride’s family because it will remind them of the daughter they once had. The Maasai people believe that once the spitting has taken place the bride is no longer considered part of the family. The spit is done to bring a blessing on the bride and a prosperous marriage. 

The young bride now leave with her newly found husband never to look back at her old home or family again, literally, it is believed that if she look back she will be turned to stone. Sometimes, Arriving at her new home the bride might be insulted by the family of the bridegroom this is done in order to ware off any back luck or curses that she might of brought from her previous village.

Crying ritual of the Tujia People in china 

Http://www.mandarintoday.com/images/5930_200708291149461.jpg. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

The eleven provinces that extend form West to East Yangtze River are considered to be one of the most diverse places on the globe when it comes to folk customs and culture. One of these cultures in particular has become quite popular world wide for its marriage customs. The Tujia Ethnic minority which live in the west Sichuan Province celebrates the importance of independent marriages with the tears of the bride. 

  The crying ritual of the Tujia people extended from the early 1600s to the end of the Qing Dynasty in 1911. It originated from the legend of The Princess of Zhao (Ancient China was divided into seven major states during the Warring States period) The Princess was going to marry the Prince of the Yan State of China. Immediately after hearing that her daughter would departure after marriage, the Queen of the Zhao State, fell to the feet of the princess and cried, begging her to return soon. Eventually this legend became the origins for the  “crying marriage” custom. 

Roughly, a month before the marriage ceremony the brides partake in the custom called “Zua Tang (sitting in the Hall)”  Around dusk each day the bride enters a hall and commences to cry for about an hour. The first nine days she weeps alone but on the tenth day her mother joins. This continues for another ten days and on the twentieth the grandmother, aunts, and sisters can join the weeping. 

The crying is not just random moaning, there are certain different ways that the bride can indulge, these are called the “Crying Marriage song.” These key words and phrases are beneficial in bettering the wedding atmosphere.  Here is an example 

A Crying Song

"Traditions - Festivals and Customs." Crying Marriage! A Traditional Matrimonial Custom of Southwest China's Sichuan Province. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

The bird in the tree has grown up; my sister is getting married.
Once married, when is she going back home?
Let us share the deep feeling tonight.
My sister is like a white lotus root, and no man can resist her charm.
My sister has a sweet mouth, which every man wants to kiss.
My sister has a pair of deft hands, good at embroidery and weaving.
My sister is kind-hearted, respectful to both father and mother.

The crying is a symbolic reminder of the importance of free will marriages. It reminds the bride and any one else weeping of the liberty they have in comparison to the miserable lives that came along with arrange marriages. 

Before arranged marriages ended in china, it was not unheard of for the bride to swear at the matchmaker, in fact it was an essential part of the ritual. Women were bound to the so-called ‘three obedience and four virtues,”  this was applied to them as an excuse so that they didn't have a say in who they wanted to marry. Filled with regatta brides began to swear off the matchmaker moments before stepping inside the automobile. 

In the rural areas of west Sichuan where matchmakers still contribute to the ceremonies, brides continue to swear them off. It is actually considered good luck for the matchmaker to be sworn off, they believed that if they are not scolded than their bad luck will never go away.

In present day, crying marriages are still practiced  and it is a matrimonial custom for every young Tujia girl to observe a weeping bride. It doesn't matter whether the bride is satisfied with the groom or not, they are still required to weep.  Some begin to cry as early as two months while others start as late as ten days before the marriage ceremony. 

Similarities  

Arranged marriages is the connection between these two cultures but it is a connection because they both view it differently.The Tujia marriage focuses a lot of time on insuring that the brides honor their ability to chose their husbands. Even from a young age they want girls to at the very least witness a weeping bride, thus painting  a mental picture of how a bride should act. In the opposite spectrum, the Maasia culture does not allow their women to chose their marriages.

Clarification 

"Picx Masai Mara Tribe Women 2 Photos on Pinterest RSS." Picx Masai Mara Tribe Women 2 Photos on Pinterest. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

At a first glance one may misinterpret the spiting on the bride as a total disrespect for women but after doing more research this was not the case. For the Maasai, spiting is traditional. When they greet, when they get married and even when a baby is born they spit on each other. In my research I came across a video in which the dad of the bride spits on the groom after meeting him for the first time. 

It was also interesting to identify that neither the bride nor the groom had a choice in the marriage, and that it was the parents who chose. Usually the groom has a choice between three to five different sisters, but that case never appeared in my research. 

Values

From my research I conclude one major value that the Maasai Culture as well as one for the Tujia Culture

While doing research on Maasai Marriages over and over again the importance of the bridegroom came up. Once the groom and his best man arrive at the brides village the family of the bride greet him and give him full hospitality for him and his best man. The Maasai people care deeply about the bridegroom because he is the one who will continue to take care of their daughter. Because they care so much about who is going to take their daughter away, one can only conclude that they truly do wish the best for their daughter. The Value that the Tujia culture emphases is simple to see. Aside from all the weeping and moaning the ritual of the “Crying Marriage” is about  recognizing the full freedom of being able to marry who ever you want  to marry by witnessing how miserable arranged marriage makes the bride weep.

Citations 

Marriage Ceremonies

Tujia Crying Marriage 

online

Mandarin Today

N.d about MDT Mandarin Today http://www.mandarintoday.com/TheCustomofCryingMarriage.htm

"13 Amazing Coming of Age Traditions from around the World." 13 Amazing Coming of Age Traditions from around the World. N.p., 28 Sept. 2014. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.
Online

Yangtz River

N.d about YTR Yangtzer River http://www.yangtzeriver.org/culture/folk-customs-along-the-yangtze.htm "Folk Customs along the Yangtze." , Funeral Dance, Fishermen, Culture. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

Online

Strange feed

N.d about SGF.  Strange Feed http://www.strangefeed.com/crying-ritual-of-the-tujia-people/
"Crying Ritual Of The Tujia People - StrangeFeeD." StrangeFeeD. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

Maasia Spiting on brides

Online 

Africa Insider

N.d about AFKI. AFKInsider http://afkinsider.com/35797/10-fascinating-african-tribal-traditions/5/

"10 Fascinating African Tribal Traditions." AFKInsider. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

Online 

Iwebsreet

N.d about IWBT. Iwebstreet  http://iwebstreet.com/different-cultures-with-these-bizarre-wedding-rituals/ "Different Cultures With These Bizarre Wedding Rituals." IWebStreet. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

Online

ITHAKA

N.d about ALK. Aluka http://www.aluka.org/stable/10.5555/al.ch.document.bfacp1b10140 Online

N.p., n.d. Web.

Coming of age Rituals

                   Coming of age Rituals

Amish Rumspringa & Mardudjara Aborigines Sub-incision

Rumspringa 

"Holy Rumspringa! An Amish Reality Show?!" Prince.org. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

The Amish are a subsect of the Anabaptist Christian movement, who intentionally segregate themselves from other communities as part of their faith. As a coming of age ritual, the Amish indulge in a practice known as Rumspringa. The word Rumspringa was originally  derived from a german word “springa,” meaning  “to jump.” The ritual occurs whenever a boy or girl turns the age of sixteen (although it can occur as early as age fourteen), and ends with the ritual of Baptism into the Amish religion. It is at this age the Amish believe a person becomes mature.

"Amish - A Haiku Deck by Autumn Wallace." Presentation Software That Inspires. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

"13 Amazing Coming of Age Traditions from around the World." 13 Amazing Coming of Age Traditions from around the World. N.p., 28 Sept. 2014. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

After reaching the age of maturity, teenagers are allowed to explore the world outside their community for a weekend, without family supervision. The elders of the amish community encourage the young adults to partake in the pleasures of the outside world.  these includes but are not limited to the use of  modern clothing, alcohol, smoking, and the use technology. Though they are completely free to go where they want, most do not wonder far into the outside world. instead they usually take a trip to the nearest city or town.

"Devil's Playground - Google Search." Devil's Playground - Google Search. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

"MIX NEWS COLOMBIA..." MIX NEWS COLOMBIA... N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

 The purpose of this weekend is to widen the perspective of the Amish youth. It is at this time that the teenagers reflect on whether they see themselves in a quiet, peaceful lifestyle or in a fast-pace society. Although these teenagers are considered adults, they are not yet seen as devoted members to the faith. Induction to the faith occurs only after they recite the Schleitheim and Dordrecht Confessions of Faith. The Schleitheim Confessions are the Anabaptist’s most representative statements of principles.  The Dordrecht Confession is a statement of religious beliefs that emphasize salvation trough Jesus Christ, baptism, and nonviolence. Since returning to the community is not mandatory, those who do return are excepted to be whole heartily devoted to the Amish lifestyle. Fortunately for the Amish community, the majority of their teenagers do return after Rumspringa and pledge full devotion for their faith. 

Mardudjara Aborigines Sub-incision

"Past Lives, Other Lives, and The Vast Hole of the." The Great Reveal by SillyMickel the PlanetMates. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

The Australian Mardudjara Aborigines’s rite of passage consists of two parts: circumcision and sub-incision. Aborigine boys ages fifteen and sixteen undergo this passage. It is only through these body modifications that a boy will come of age. After reaching the age of maturity the Aborigines boys are led by the tribal elder to a bonfire, where they are giving orders to lay down. After a couple moments have passed, a group of singing and dancing men surround the boys. These men are followed by group of men called the Mourners, who moan and cry throughout the circumcision and sub-incision.

The tribal elder goes one by one performing the circumcisions. He sits on the chest of the boys, twist and pulls the foreskin of the penis, and slowly cuts off the foreskin. This ritual is done without any anesthetics. The boys are only given a boomerang to bite down on to ease the pain. When the circumcision is completed, the boys kneel on a shield that’s placed over the fire so the smoke can rise up and purify their wounds. As the boys are recovering from the pain, the tribal elder insist that they chew some “good meat.” He gives the boys a piece of “good meat,” and without much hesitation the boys eat it. Moments after swallowing the meat the elder informs boys that it was actually their own foreskin. He explains that eating their own foreskin,  allows the flesh to grow inside them, thus allowing the boys to become strong men. 

  

"Past Lives, Other Lives, and The Vast Hole of the." The Great Reveal by SillyMickel the PlanetMates. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

A few months after the circumcision passes, the second part of the initiation begins. Just as before the tribal elder takes the boys to a bonfire and he sits on top of them. Again, the group of male singers and mourners are present. The tribal elder takes hold of the boys penises and a small wooden rod is inserted into their urethras to act as a backing for the knife. The tribal elder splits the penis on the underside form the frenulum (underneath the head of the penis) to the scrotum.  The pain is so unbearable that the boys began to cry. Lucky for them their rite of passage is now complete and their pain will soon subside. The boys stand over the fire allowing the blood to trip into it. From now on the boys will have to sit to urinate, very similar to how a woman would. Most anthropologist believe that the sub-incision ritual is done to stimulate a woman’s menstruation, which allows the boys to sympathize with the women.

This rituals of coming of age is slowly disappearing each time more and more with the tribes contact with the modern world.

Similarities 

"Wirtualna Polska - Wszystko Co Ważne - Www.wp.pl." Wirtualna Polska - Wszystko Co Ważne - Www.wp.pl. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

"Australian Aboriginal Rites of Passage." Australian Aboriginal Rites of Passage. N.p., n.d. Web. 08 Dec. 2014.

Besides the fact that both the coming-of-age rituals occur at the same point in life, the Aborigines’s and Amish’s rituals differ in many ways. The major difference is that they focus on different aspects of maturity. The Amish Rumspringa is about sticking to your roots. Imagine always hearing stories about the wonders of the outside world, how excited would you be at age sixteen? You would finally be able to see the world for the first time. The thing that I respect about teenagers that go through Rumspringa is that they don't change. Not even seeing the wonders of a new world changes their love for their modest life, family, and religion. The individuals who return are people who truly understand  the phrase “there’s no place like home.” 

Rumspringa is about staying loyal to your roots whereas the Aborigines sub-incision is about facing fear and self identity. If you where an Aborigines boy you would at a young age know about sub-incision. Whether it was from your cousin going through it, looking at your dad naked, or maybe watching the ritual from far, regardless the reason you would soon discover that you are next. Every year you are getting closer to your rite-of-passage. One day you wake up and its the day you feel it and you can not avoid it. There is nothing you can do about it, you might as well lay back with your friends and let the ritual commence. 

The Boys of the Aborigines tribe are facing a fear that has followed them since infancy. Although they might be scared they fully accept the pain because they finally want to be able to be identified with their elders. It is what they have seen all there lives and know it is finally here. 

Small differences 

 Unlike the unisex Amish Rumspringa,only males participate in the Aborigines’s circumcisions. During Rumspringa the teenagers have no elder supervision, they do what they please, which is the polar opposite from the Aborigines ritual in which the tribe elder gives orders to the boys. The Aborigines boys have to be circumcised to become adults, they have to remove a body part, the Amish teens don’t have to remove anything. Rumspringa is a two to three day ritual whereas the Aborigines circumcision and sub-incision take months to complete. At the end of Rumpringa the teens are baptized, they are initiated into the religion, the Aborigine’s circumcised are not baptized. 

Values 

 "Wirtualna Polska - Wszystko Co Ważne - Www.wp.pl." Wirtualna Polska - Wszystko Co Ważne - Www.wp.pl. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

"Australian Aboriginal Rites of Passage." Australian Aboriginal Rites of Passage. N.p., n.d. Web. 08 Dec. 2014.

After, researching both the coming of age ceremonies I noticed some values. The fact that the Amish elders allow their teens to explore the outside world, drink, and smoke, gives me the idea that they have trust in their youth. It is almost as if the elder know that no matter what the teens might see or do they will still stay faithful to the community. 

It may sound demonic at first to read that the Aborigines boys undergo sub-incision, but only after reading that anthropologist believe sub-incision to be a symbolism for woman menstruation, I understood. View the ceremony through a cross cultural perspective  I noticed the amount of respect that the Aborigines have towards women, sub-incision thus allowing men to sympathize with the females of the tribe.

Bibliography:

Coming of age

Amish Rumspringa

Online

Globalcitizen

N.d. About GBC. Globalcitizen http://www.globalcitizen.org/Content/Content.aspx?id=070c47a6-f0df-4680-88e7-a80158cdacc6

"13 Amazing Coming of Age Traditions from around the World." 13 Amazing Coming of Age Traditions from around the World. N.p., 28 Sept. 2014. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.Online 

National Public Radio

N.d About NPR. National Public Radio http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5455572
"Rumspringa: Amish Teens Venture into Modern Vices." NPR. NPR, n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.

Online

All that is Interesting

N.d about ATII. All that is interesting http://all-that-is-interesting.com/worlds-coolest-coming-of-age-traditions/3
"The World's Coolest Coming Of Age Traditions." All That Is Interesting. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.  

Mardudjara Aborigines Sub-incision

Online

All that is Interesting

N.d about ATII. All that is interesting http://all-that-is-interesting.com/worlds-coolest-coming-of-age-traditions/3

  

Online

Web pages

N.d About. WP Webpages http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~rfrey/220aboriginal_passage.htm
"The World's Coolest Coming Of Age Traditions." All That Is Interesting. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.